In the Name of God

Medicine in Islam and its Development

By: Mohammad B. Ansari

Islam is a religion that has strong emphasise on learning sciences and increasing of knowledge. It has encouraged its followers to learn everything from everybody and to have long and hard journeys for the sake of learning and increasing of knowledge. This fact has clearly been mentioned in many Quranic verses. It is interesting that the word of "Ilm" i.e. "knowledge" and its derivations has been repeated in the holy Quran 779 times. In some of them God has been introduced as All-knowing, and as human-being is manifestation of His names and attributes he should also provide himself with science and knowledge. In many other verses of the holy Quran people who do not pay attention to learning and knowledge are strongly reproached. In a verse, learned and unlearned men have properly been compared with the seeing and blind men or with lightness and darkness. We read in sura al-Ra´d, verse 16 the followings: "Say: Are the blind and the seeing man equal, or are the darkness and the light equal?".

In another phrase, they have been compared with the living and the dead: "Not equal are the living and the dead, God makes to hear whomsoever He will; thou cannot not make those in their tombs to hear". (Sura al-Fatir, verse 22)

As a matter of fact Quran is a book which invites people to increase their knowledge about the nature and what has been created by God in, on and above the earth etc. to understand how to use them in the best way. He says: " And He has subjected to you all that in the heavens and all that is on the earth: all is from Him; verily, herein are signs for those who reflect". (Sura al-Djathiah, verse 13). It is clear that one cannot use or reach to the potentials and possibilities of the nature unless through knowledge, science and technology.

Besides the holy Quran, there are a lot of narration from the prophet of Islam Mohammad (s.a.) and his companions that pay attention to the very subject as well. He has said that learning is a necessity or religious duty to all Muslims, both male and female (1). It is narrated that the early Muslims, who used to pay to their wives in the marriage contract some money or gold as dowries, were advised and encouraged to use in their contract "learning of Quran" instead of gold or money. In a narration the prophet has compared between learning and worship and said that according to God, the Most high, learning is very much better than worship (2). And he insisted also on Muslims to look for learning and science, although it requires travelling to China (3) .

Verses of the holy Quran and narration about the importance of learning and science are general and they include all branches of science, which are useful for the life of human beings. However, deliberation over them brings to the conclusion that the most important and superior to all branches of science are religious sciences and medicine. The prophet said that the science was of two kinds: science, which deals with the religion, and the science, which deals with the humans, body (4). This dividing inspires that the most useful sciences, which regarding to the others are indeed the base, are the mentioned because the first purifies man from all negative attributes and immorality in his soul and the other keeps him away from diseases and illnesses in his body. Sincere faith and spiritual believe keeps the learned to use his knowledge in the best way and in the service of the human beings. His faith does not allow him to misuse his science and experience. This is the very reason for that the Islamic physician since the early times used to have and recite an "oath formula" when they wanted to start their job. I will discuss about this subject later on in my paper and include the text of the formula.

1) Medicine and Drugs in the Holy Quran and Sunnah:

There are many phrases in the holy Quran about eatable and drinkable materials and products. God, the Almighty, has mentioned them for the people in order to know that He is the only one who has prepared for them everything that is useful and necessary for their body and their life and that such articles are pure and allowed for their use. In the story of Adam and Eve which is mentioned several times in different parts of the holy Quran our attention is drawn to this fact that God divided eatable articles in the "Garden" to two parts and told them to eat from all of them except one. We read the followings in the Sura al-Baqarah, verse 35: "And We said: O Adam! Dwell you and your wife in the Garden and eat thereof plentifully where you desire, but do not approach this tree, for then you will be of the transgressors". This phrase indicates that some of the things, although may be delicious or pleasant, but they are harmful, either for man's body or his soul. This was the way of divine advice to the children of Adam and Eve, which is valid to the end of his life. In this style, God has divided eatable and drinkable articles in the holy Quern to two parts: Firstly "al-Tayyeb" i.e. the clean and pure things, secondly "al-Khabith" i.e. unclean. He says: "O people! Eat the lawful and good things out of what is on the earth, and do not follow the footsteps of Satan; surely he is your open enemy". (Sura al-Baqarah, verse 168). Quran has named good and lawful things including: Fruits, vegetables, meat of cattle, birds and fishes, some products of cattle etc. in general and named unclean articles. They are pork, wine and the meat of cattle, if the name of God is not mentioned when slaughtered.

The holy Quran advises that man should eat or drink according to the need of his body because overeating or eating very little, such as some Sufists who wrongly think that man can by mortification overcome his bodily desires, cause damages and diseases for the body. God says: "..eat and drink and be not extravagant; surely He does not love the extravagant". (Sura al-A'raf, verse 31). According to the Islamic teachings, man is not allowed in his way of life and in any dimension of his actions and manners, both material and spiritual, to go to extremes. Eating and drinking are advised to be in this style. It is narrated that at the time of the prophet of Islam a physician came to Medina to stay there for treating the sick. When the prophet met him said that my companion do not need a physician because they only eat when they are hungry and they leave eating before they are full.

Islam has also advised Muslims not to use dirty things and means in their houses, clothes, foods and public places. They should keep everything in all time and places clean. According to the holy Quran God has created water for washing and cleaning every dirties. He says in the holy Quran sura al-forqan, verse 48: " And We sent down from heaven pure water.." This purity here means that everything regarding a Muslim's life should be clean and pure. This way of teachings today is called “hygiene".

Abstinence and keeping away from everything that causes any damage to the body of a person is necessary and regarded as a religious duty. For example, when a person fill that smoking or eating a certain thing is dangerous for him he must leave that. This religious duty is stronger when something is harmful for a sick person. The prophet said: “Stomach is a house for all diseases, and abstinence is the main drug"(5).

There are, however, many advises in the Islamic Sunnah about different eatable things which are useful for the safety of man's body and which are harmful. I do not want to expand this part of the paper and go to the details. There are a lot of sources in this regard that can be useful for the interested researchers, such as "Tibb-un-Nabi" (the prophet's medicine), "Tibb-ur-Riza"(Imam Riza´s Medicine) etc. One of the most comprehensive sources in this regard is: Allamah Mohammad-Bagher al-Majlesi, Bihar al-Anwar, Vol.62.

In the holy Quran, when speaking about God's power, we read something about "honey" which according to these phrases is a delicious drug to remedy for diseases. The reason is that honey is naturally derived from different flowers, every which is useful for a certain disease. We read in sura al-Nahl, verses 68-69 the followings: " And your Lord revealed to the bee saying: Make hives in the mountains and in the trees and in what they build (i.e. beehive), then eat of all the fruits and, and walk in the ways of your Lord submissively. There comes forth from within it a beverage of many colours, in which there is healing for men; most surely there is a sign in this for a people who reflect". Milk is also something that named in the holy Quran, (same sura, verse 66) as a good and useful drink.

Pork and alcohol which have been mentioned in sura al-Baqarah, verse 173 and sura al-Ma´edah, verse 90 of the holy Quran are strictly forbidden because they causes serious diseases. Today it has been proved that they are harmful for the body, and there have been written many books and papers by the Western learned about their harmful effects. It is said that there are two harmful worms harboured by pigs, one is "Taeniasolium" which on ingestion passes to the brain and causes epilepsy; and the other is "Trichinellaspiralis" which passes to the muscle and brain causing muscular swelling and pain and also epilepsy. Numerous diseases have been attributed to alcohol such as dyspeptic trouble, peptic ulceration, stomach cancer, cirrhosis liver, vitamin deficiency and coronary heart diseases.

As regard to the sick, there are some phrases in the holy Quran indicating to them, but they have not anything to do with their dealing. These phrases mostly deal with the disease or illness of the man's heart and it is a symbol for the spiritual illnesses, which are worse than physical diseases such as immortality, having wrong faith, and committing crimes or sins. The rest phrases about sick mention their religious duties and say that when a man is sick he is not obliged to do so. For example when he is sick he should not fast or perform a duty for which he is not able. It is repeated in some verses that: "There is no blame on the sick". In one verse, Quran quotes the prophet Abraham saying: "And when I am sick, then he restores me to health". (sura al-sho'ara, verse 80). This may be an indication to this fact that although a patient should go to the physician and use drugs, he should hope and expect cure only from God, the almighty. There are a lot of narrations that encourage the sick to ask help from God and pray for their remedy which comes only from God. In the Islamic teachings, there are a lot of special prayers and supplements for different kinds of diseases. This is a right connection between material and spiritual dimensions of the human beings. According to the technical terminology, that is connection between physic and metaphysic. No doubt, causes of many kinds of bodily diseases are spiritual or psychological crisis in man's life and it seems that Islam by this way of treatment has paid attention to this very point. Islam has paid strong attention to the work of physician and considered it a holy job. Physician who is dealing with the life of people is compared with a metaphysician or philosopher who deal with the faith and mind of people. This is the reason that Muslim physicians have always had an oath formula before they start their job. One of such formulas is as follows:

"I swear by God, The Great

• To regard God in carrying out my profession

• To protect human life in all stages and under all circumstances, doing my utmost to rescue it from death, malady, pain and anxiety

• To keep peoples' dignity, cover their privacies and lock up their secrets

• To be, all the way, an instrument of God's mercy, extending my medical care to near and far, virtuous and sinner and friend and enemy

• To strive in the pursuit of knowledge and harnessing it for the benefit but not the harm of mankind

• To revere my teacher, teach my junior, and be brother to members of the Medical profession joined in piety and charity

• To live my Faith in private and in public, avoiding whatever blemishes me in the eyes of God, His apostle and my fellow Faithful

And may God be witness to this Oath".

2) Clinics and Drugs at the Early Days of Islam

Although there was not so much of diseases in the early days of Islam in Mecca and Medina, but there was sometimes a lot of war-wounded people who needed treatments. In those periods Muslims were attacked by their enemies from every side and they had to do something in this regard. According to the Islamic history the first clinic was established in Medina at the age of the prophet's life. In the meantime, Muslims also founded temporary clinics around the war fronts. They used to dress the wounds and use some herbaceous drugs were known for them. The women had also an important role in this connection. It is narrated that several times when the prophet himself was wounded in war fronts his daughter Fatima dressed his wounds.

According to the history of Islam, there was some developments in medicine in the period of the first caliphs. Man can find the name of traditional physicians of those period in the books of the Islamic history. It is narrated in Ibn-Djarir al-Tabari's History "Tarikh al-Tabari" that when Abu-Bakr, the first caliph, was poisoned he was asked: "should we bring for you a physician? He said that he has done that already (6). And in the same source we read that when the second caliph Umar bin Khattab was attacked by Abu-lo'lo'ah and was going to be demised some of his companions asked him to bring for him a physician. As he was agree with the suggestion they invited a physician from Harith-bin-Ka'b family. He treated some physical tests and said that the treatment is impossible (7). Also for Imam Ali bin Abu-Talib, who was attacked by poisonous sword on his head, also they did so. When an expert surgeon from Kufa, Iraq tested the wound by a peace of blood-vessel of lung he said that the poison had effected deeply and there is not any way for treatment (8).

In the first half of the first century of the advent of Islam, when there was a wide spread of Islam out of the Arabian peninsula's boundaries to the middle East, North Africa and Iran, Muslims reached to good experiences in different branches of science including medicine. People were encouraged to increase their knowledge accordingly. This situation leads to appearance of the proficient learned who used to serve people and have a high rank in the society especially by Caliphs. It is interesting that there was among them some non-Arabs or non-Muslims such as Iranians or Christians as well who were respected by Muslims without any respect to their nationality or religion.

3) The High Point Development of Medicine in Islamic Society

We read in the history of sciences in Muslim societies that there was a considerable development in the Umayyads and Abbasids age of the Islamic history. It is narrated that at the first period there were great hospitals in the main cities under the Islamic government in which worked proficient physicians. In the age of Walid bin Abd-al-Malik (86AH/705AD) the first academy especial for studying leprosy was established in Damascus. At the same period the Umayyads also established hospitals for the psychological sick and especial hospitals for military forces. Muslim physicians divided medicine to different branches and trained expert students in each departments. They had expert for children's and women's diseases, dentists and psychologists (9) . Although they employed famous Greek's works in their studies and researches such as those of Jalinus, Apocrat etc. they created new and initiative ideas, opinions and treatments. Ahmad bin Ishaq (d.284AH/897AD) one of the Islamic historians had summarised the book of Apocrat on medicine in his book "al-Tarikh al-Ya'qubi" (Vol. 1, pp.95) a fact that improves that such works were at disposal of Muslims at that times.

Going, a little bit, to details, it is said that the caliphs al‑Mansur, Harun al‑Rashid and al-Ma'mun, Abbasid caliphs, were noted for their patronage of learning and medicine. When suffering from a stomach complaint, al‑Mansur, who ruled from (158‑169 AH/734-775AD), called a Christian Syrian‑speaking physician Jurjis bin jibra'il bin Bakhtishu to Baghdad from Gondeshapur in south west Iran. His son was also called to Baghdad in 171AH/787AD, where he remained until his death in 801, serving as physician to the caliph Harun al‑Rashid. The third generation of this family, jibra'il bin Bakhtishu, was physician to Hanm al‑Rashid and to the two succeeding caliphs in Baghdad. For eight generations, well into the second half of the 11th century, twelve members of the Bakhtishu's family were to serve the caliphs as physicians and advisors, to sponsor the translation of texts, and to compose their own original treatises. A remarkable, if not unique, record in the history of medicine.

Early in the 9th century, there was established in Baghdad a foundation called the House of Wisdom (Bait al‑Hikmah), which had its own library. Its purpose was to promote the translation of scientific texts. The most famous of the translators was Hunayn bin Ishaq al‑'Ibadi a Syrian‑speaking Christian originally from southern Iraq who also knew Greek and Arabic. He was the author of many medical tracts and a physician to the caliph al‑Mutawakkil (ruled 232‑247AH/847-861AD), but he is most often remembered as a translator, an activity he began at the age of seventeen. The earlier Greek medical teachings, however, were welcomed and valued by an emerging Islamic Caliphate, which needed to find ways of dealing with medical problems common to all peoples: disease, pain, injuries, and successful childbearing. This heritage of medical theory and practice, mingled with some Persian, Indian, and Arab elements, was assimilated and elaborated by a community of both Muslim and non‑Muslim physicians speaking many languages ‑‑ Arabic, Persian, Syriac, Hebrew, and Turkish, but Arabic became the lingua franca and Islam the dominant faith. From Spain and North Africa through the central lands of Egypt, Syria and Iraq, to Iran and India in the East, and over a period of roughly twelve centuries (from the middle of the 8th to the present century), Islamic medicine has shown great variation and diversity. As cosmopolitan Islamic culture developed, shared traditions spanned vast areas and crossed many centuries (9).

It is said that Yuhanna (John) bin Masweih was the first anatomist at the age of al-Mo'tasim (218AH/833AD) one of the Abbasid's Caliphs who for the first time dissected a monkey was brought for this purpose from the Caliph's zoo.

Al-Razi, in Latin Rhazes (251-320AH/865-932AD) celebrated alchemist and Muslim philosopher who is also considered to have been the greatest physician of the Islamic world.Al-Razi's two most significant medical works are the "Kitab al-Mansuri", which he composed for the Rayy (South Tehran) ruler, Mansur ibn Ishaq and which became well known in the West in Gerard of Cremona's 12th-century Latin translation; and "Kitab al-Hawi", (the Comprehensive Book), in which he surveyed Greek, Syrian, and early Arabic medicine, as well as some Indian medical knowledge. Throughout his works he added his own considered judgement and his own medical experience as commentary. Among his numerous minor medical treatises is the famed Treatise on the Small Pox and Measles, which was translated into Latin, Byzantine Greek, and various modern languages (10) .

Ibn Sina (known in western countries as Avicenna), (370-429AH/980-1037AD), was the most famous philosopher and physician in both West and East. He compiled his book "Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb" (the Canon of Medicine) which is the most famous single book in the history of medicine in both East and West. It is a systematic encyclopaedia based for the most part on the achievements of Greek physicians of the Roman imperial age and on other Arabic works and, to a lesser extent, on his own experience (his own clinical notes were lost during his journeys) (11&12) .

Ibn al-Nafis a famous anatomist completed his studies and researches on anatomy and believed that there were great differences between animals and human being’s body and man cannot rely only on the animals' body for anatomy researches. He expressed his new opinions in his book "sharhu Tashrih al-Qanun" which was an explanation and commentary to Avecinna's Canon.

Ali bin Iisa al-Baghdadi was the greatest oculist in the middle age. Ammar al-Museli was also one of the greatest oculists in the age of Fatemids' Caliphs in Cairo, Egypt. Ibn al-Haitham was an oculist who continued his deep research accordingly and called special names for different parts of eye, which are valid up to now.

In surgery, which was an important part of the medicine in the Islamic academies, was Abu-al-Qasim al-Zahrawi one of most experts. He presented notable achievements in this regards in different organs of the body. He compiled his book named "Al-Tasrif li-Man Ajaza 'an-al-Ta'lif" which is a complete encyclopaedia on Medicine and contain 30 chapter among which the 30th chapter, that deals with the surgery and has been translated to western languages, is very famous.

Abu al-Hasan al-Tabari was the first physician who discovered that Tuberculosis is an epidemic disease and that it has not only effect upon the lungs, but in whole body. There were many other great physicians in the world of Islam in the middle age who had great services to medicine.

Here I would like to quote the followings about Islamic manuscripts on medicine from internet: "On the 30th of November 1094 AD (the 19th of the month Dhu al‑Qa'dah in the year 487 AH), a scribe in Baghdad completed a copy of an Arabic treatise by one of the most important medieval physicians and clinicians Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya' al‑Razi. This manuscript is the oldest volume in the National Library of Medicine (NLM) and the third oldest Arabic manuscript on any medical topic known to be preserved today. The present exhibition is both a celebration of the 900th anniversary of this important manuscript and an opportunity to highlight the nature and achievements of the medical profession in Islamic culture from the 9th to the 19th century".

"The core of the exhibition was a selection of 39 volumes from the Islamic manuscript holdings at NLM. The bulk of the Islamic medical manuscripts at NLM ‑- that is to say, 129 of the volumes ‑‑ were acquired in 1941 from Abraham S. Yahuda, a Biblical scholar and orientalist who had come to the U.S. as a refugee. Most of his large collection of Islamic manuscripts were acquired by Princeton University, but the Army Medical Library purchased the medical items by means of a bequest from William F. Edgar, a physician who in 1849 had taken a wagon‑train over the Oregon Trail and settled in California. In the 50 years since the main group of manuscripts was purchased, an additional 22 manuscripts have been acquired from various sources. As a result, NLM now has 105 Arabic, 33 Persian, and 13 Turkish manuscripts, bring the total to 151 volumes. Many of these volumes, however, contain a number of treatises, so that the collection actually comprises 351 individual medical treatises. In 1821 the Egyptian government established a printing press in Bulaq, a suburb of Cairo, and for the rest of the 19th century it was the most important Arabic press, responsible for modern printings of many classical Arabic medical texts. Detailed catalogue records of the Arabic and Persian manuscripts are now available on NLM's online bibliographic database"(13) .

At the renaissance era in the West and exchange of Eastern and Western cultures the situation changed and gradually Europe reached to considerable progresses in science and technology including medicine. Just as early Greek medical teaching served as a common intellectual framework for professional medical practice in the Islamic Near East, so Arabic medical literature of the 9th to 12th centuries, through Latin translations, provided late medieval Europe with ideas and practices from which early modern medicine eventually arose. Great personalities appeared in the scene and important researches and discoveries came about. Progress in technology created suitable fields for wide advances in medicine studies, producing chemical drugs and making new medical instruments. Nowadays medicine is one of the widest science with it's very different branches which are everyday growing more and more.

4) Medicine, Drugs and Islamic Laws

In the early times in Europe, there was a hard contradiction between Christianity as a religion and science. There are very bad stories and reports from sharp conflicts between church and the learned who brought new scientific opinions and new discoveries. Many researchers and scientific personalities were excommunicated or killed. Nobody could get red of hard and wide inquisition.

In Islam, although there has never been such a conflict between religion and science because of the well worth of science in Islamic teachings, there has been sometimes unkindness or disinterestedness by some of the learned or "Ulama". But we should know that they were just a few fogyish ones who had forgotten the importance of the science from the view point of Islam and could not move according to the spur of the time.

In connection with the medicine and drugs, however, there have always been controversies and arguments both in Christianity and Islam. In Christianity, specially in Catholicism, many things have been forbidden as well as in Islam. But in Islam many Ulamas or experts in Jurisprudence always have tried to solve those problems and find lawful ways for them. There are five schools of thought in Islam i.e. Ja'fari, Hanafi, Hanbali, Maleki and Shafe'i every which has their on idea in different parts of the Islamic faith including jurisprudence and law, though they have common ideas in the fundamentals of the Islamic faith. Among them Ja'fari school of thought is more flexible and tolerable in Jurisprudence because it's followers believe in "Ijtehad". Ijtehad which originally means striving hard is based on Quran, Sunnah, Ijma' and 'aql (14) . A Mujtahid (active participial adjective from Ijtehad) makes great efforts in order to find the Islamic right opinion from the mentioned sources. Since last decades simultaneously with the progress of medical sciences and technology many Mujtahids have tried their best and delivered progressive "Fatwas" (decrees) in new issues of jurisprudence. Following are some of the such researches and Fatwas which either had not been discussed about already or had been forbidden in their Fatwas:

1) As regard to the anatomy, surgery and grafting of the organs of a body the latest Fatwa is that it is permissible for a person who is agree with giving or donating one of his organs to a patient or a dead person who has made a will in this regard (15). Ayatullah Imam Khomeini is of the opinion that it is not allowed unless the life of a person is in danger and it depended on such a grafting (16). He allows grafting of an animal's organ to a patient when it is necessary. Recently one the great Sunni Ulamas has allowed in his interview grafting of an animal's organ, even unclean ones such as dog and pig, to a patient (17). According to some Fatwas it is also allowed to use the body of a dead person for anatomy in the university for students under certain conditions (18).

2) Abortion was absolutely prohibited in all Islamic schools of thought unless there was a serious danger for the life of its mother. But nowadays there are some Fatwas which allows it in some cases accordingly (19).

3) Fecundating of sperm by physicians is not allowed unless from wife's husband to her. It is allowed to foster sperm of a man out of a womb. When it is born it belongs to the source of sperm as his/her father lawfully. Bank of sperms is not allowed in Islam because fathership will remain unknown (20).

4) Changing the sex (from male to female or vice versa) by surgery is allowed for a hermaphrodite, and accordingly he/she will join the new sex with it's rules and regulations (21).

5) It is allowed for a wife to take anti-pregnancy tablets when both she and her husband are agree with that. And she can make herself barren when pregnancy cause serious danger for her life (22).

6) It is allowed using of what is Haram (forbidden) in Islamic Shari'ah for treatment, when that is the only way for patient's health (23). So using small quantity of alcohol in some drugs and syrups etc. is not forbidden (24).

These were, however, some examples of today's research of the Mojtahidin on Islamic issues regarding jurisprudence and everyday man is facing with new developments. We should wait for more new developments in future.

The End

Mohammad B. Ansari

Imam and director of the Islamic Centre Hamburg

Hamburg, 10.10.1998

Foot-notes

(1) Mohammad Bagher al-Majlesi, Bihqr al-Anwar,Yol. 1,p.177.

(2) Ibid. Vol. 1, p.167.

(3) Ibid. Vol. 1, p.177.

(4) Ibid. Vol. l. P.220.

(5) Ibid. Yol.62, p. 190.

(6) Ibn jarir al-Tabari, Tarikh al-umam wa al-moluk, Vol. 3, p. 419.

(7) lbid. Vol.4, p. 193.

(8) Shrikh Abbas al-Qummi, Montaha al-Amaal, Vol., 1, p. 178.

(9) Al-alam al-islami, Turathona al-ilmi, prited in Saudi Arabia, p. 13, 21sep.1998.

(l0) Encyclopredia Britannica, Inc.1994.

(11)rbid.

( 12) A lot of avicenna's works have been translated by the westerns from which we can name the followins in connection with Medicine: O.C. Gruner, A Treatise on the Canon of Medicine of Avicenna (1930); M.H. Shah, The General Principles of Avicenna's Canon of Medicine (1966), an analysis from the point of view of modem medical theory and practice; G.W. Wickens (ed.).

(13)Al-hazaarat al-lslamiyahwq al-tibb,Islamic Culture and the Medical Ar1s. (Internet)

(14) Sunnah is the scond important source for Islamic laws and that is sayings, actions, and asserts of the prophet of Islam and twelve Imams after him. Ijma' is consensus of opinions of the Ulam on a certan issue and 'Aql is reason or mind which hilp a mujtahidto reach to a conect idea.

(15)Ayatullah mohammad Fazel Lankarani, Jame' al-Masa'el,p. 614.

( 16) Ayatullah Imam Khomeini, Tahrir al-Wasilah, vol. 2, p. 624.

(17)Al-Shaikh Dr. Yousuf al- Qardhawi, Arabic weekly "Al-Aalam", printed in London No. 618, 25, April, 1998, p. 55.

(18)Ayatullah mohammad Fazel Lankarani, Jame' al-Masa'el, p. 616.

(19) See: Ayatullah al-salyed Mohammad Hussein Fadhlullah, Al-Masa'el al-Feqhiyyah, printed in Beirut 1995.

(20)See above mentioned books respectively: (15): 602, (16):621 and(19):270.

(21) Ayatullah Imam Khomeini, Tahrir al-Was ilah, v ol. 2, p. 626.

(22)Ayatdlah al-sayyed Mohammad Hussein Fadhlullah, Al-Masa'el al-Feqhiyyah,pp.267-270.

(23) Ayatullah Imam Khomeini, Tahrir al-\tr asil ah, vol. 2, p. I 50.

(24) Ayatullah mohammad Fazel Lankarari, J ame' al- Mas a' el, p. 37 .